Westerners tend to assume religions are exclusive: you are one thing and not another. Chinese religious practice has generally not worked that way. The traditional formulation is the 三教, "three teachings" — Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism — understood as complementary rather than competing, and a single family might use Confucian ritual for ancestors, Taoist rites for a funeral, and Buddhist prayer for a sick relative.
Confucianism#
Not a religion in the usual sense, but an ethical and social philosophy that has shaped Chinese institutions for 2,500 years.
Confucius (Kong Fuzi, 551–479 BCE) taught that social harmony arises from everyone fulfilling the obligations of their role, in five key relationships: ruler–subject, father–son, husband–wife, elder–younger brother, friend–friend. Central concepts are ren (humaneness), li (ritual propriety), xiao (filial piety) and the importance of education and self-cultivation.
What it produced: the imperial civil service examination system, which for over a thousand years selected officials by written examination on the classics — the first meritocratic bureaucracy in the world, and an idea China exported.
Where to see it: Confucian temples (文庙) in most old cities are quiet, symmetrical, and contain no statues of gods — only tablets and often a scholar-tree courtyard. Qufu in Shandong, Confucius's birthplace, has the temple, the family mansion and the cemetery, all UNESCO-listed. The temples in Beijing, Nanjing, Suzhou and Jianshui are all worth an hour.
Taoism#
Indigenous to China, and the source of much of what looks distinctively Chinese in art and landscape.
The Tao Te Ching, attributed to Laozi (6th century BCE), and the Zhuangzi argue for wu wei — non-forcing, acting in accordance with the grain of things rather than against it — and for the balance of complementary opposites, yin and yang.
Philosophical Taoism became religious Taoism in the 2nd century CE, with a pantheon of deities, immortals, alchemy, geomancy (feng shui), martial arts and elaborate ritual.
Recognising a Taoist temple: monks and priests wear their hair long and knotted in a topknot rather than shaven; you will see the yin-yang symbol, the eight trigrams, images of the Jade Emperor and the Eight Immortals, and frequently a fortune-telling operation with numbered bamboo sticks.
Where to see it: Mount Qingcheng near Chengdu (the birthplace of religious Taoism), Wudang Mountain in Hubei (tai chi's spiritual home), Mount Hua near Xi'an, Laoshan near Qingdao, and the White Cloud Temple in Beijing.
Buddhism#
Arrived from India along the Silk Road in the 1st century CE and became thoroughly Chinese — most importantly through Chan (which reached Japan as Zen) and Pure Land, the popular devotional school.
Recognising a Buddhist temple: shaven-headed monks and nuns in ochre, grey or brown robes; a Hall of Heavenly Kings at the entrance with four enormous guardian figures and a laughing Maitreya; a main hall with three Buddhas; and often a Guanyin hall. Guanyin, the bodhisattva of compassion, is the most widely worshipped figure in Chinese Buddhism and is depicted as female, having changed gender as the deity travelled from India.
Tibetan Buddhism (Vajrayana) is distinct: prayer wheels, prayer flags, butter lamps, wrathful protector deities, and clockwise circumambulation. Found in Tibet, Qinghai, parts of Sichuan and Yunnan, Inner Mongolia and at the Lama Temple in Beijing.
Where to see it: the Yungang and Longmen grottoes, the Mogao caves at Dunhuang, Leshan and Emei in Sichuan, Putuoshan island, and Lingyin Temple in Hangzhou.
Folk religion#
The largest category in practice and the hardest to label. Local deities, city gods (chenghuang), kitchen gods, the sea goddess Mazu along the southeastern coast, ancestor worship, and temples dedicated to historical figures who were deified — Guandi, the god of war and, curiously, of business, is a general from the Three Kingdoms.
This is where most everyday religious activity happens: incense for exam results, for a business, for a pregnancy, for safe travel.
Islam and Christianity#
Islam arrived by sea and by the Silk Road in the 7th century. There are roughly 20–25 million Muslims in China, principally the Hui (Chinese-speaking, dispersed nationwide) and the Uyghurs (Turkic, in Xinjiang). The Great Mosque of Xi'an, built entirely in Chinese architectural style, and Id Kah Mosque in Kashgar are the most notable sites.
Christianity has a long and intermittent history — the Nestorian stele in Xi'an records a community from 781 — and grew substantially from the 1980s. Estimates of the current Christian population vary widely. Cathedrals in Shanghai, Guangzhou, Qingdao and Harbin are architecturally interesting.
Religious practice in China operates within a state registration framework, and unregistered congregations exist in an ambiguous position. This is not a topic to raise with people you have just met.
Visiting temples respectfully#
- Enter through a side door where there is one, and step over the raised threshold rather than on it.
- Walk clockwise around halls, stupas and prayer wheels.
- Incense is offered in threes, held in both hands, bowed with three times, then placed in the burner. Watching rather than participating is entirely fine.
- Photography is usually fine in courtyards, usually prohibited inside halls, and always requires asking before photographing monks or worshippers.
- Dress covering shoulders and knees at active temples.
- Do not point your feet at an altar or an image, touch statues, or step on cushions used for prostration.
- Donations go in the box; there is no expected amount.
- Many major temples charge entry, which funds their upkeep and is normal.
Frequently asked questions#
What is the main religion in China?#
There is no single majority religion. The traditional framework is the "three teachings" — Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism — practised in combination alongside widespread folk religion. Islam and Christianity are also present, and a large share of the population identifies with no organised religion.
What is the difference between a Buddhist and a Taoist temple in China?#
Buddhist temples have shaven-headed monks in ochre or grey robes, a Hall of Heavenly Kings with four large guardians and a laughing Maitreya, and Buddha statues. Taoist temples have priests with long knotted hair, the yin-yang symbol and eight trigrams, the Jade Emperor and Eight Immortals, and usually fortune-telling with bamboo sticks.
Can tourists visit temples in China?#
Yes — nearly all are open to visitors, and many charge a modest entry fee. Walk clockwise, step over rather than on the raised thresholds, cover shoulders and knees, and ask before photographing monks or people at prayer.
What is Guanyin?#
The bodhisattva of compassion and the most widely worshipped figure in Chinese Buddhism. Originally the male Avalokiteśvara in India, the deity was depicted as female in China from around the 12th century and appears in a hall of her own in most large Buddhist temples.
Is Confucianism a religion?#
Not in the conventional sense. It is an ethical and social philosophy concerned with duty, ritual propriety, filial piety and education. Confucian temples contain inscribed tablets rather than deity statues, and the tradition coexists with Taoist and Buddhist practice rather than competing with it.